Screening Tools
We are fielding questions coming from across the United States about systematic screenings designed to detect students with initial signs of internalizing (e.g., shy, anxious, socially withdrawn) and externalizing (e.g., noncompliant, aggressive) behavior patterns.
These data are used to plan positive instructional experiences, moving away from previous wait-to-fail approaches.
We have provided guidance for selecting, installing, and using screening data within Comprehensive, Integrated, Three-Tiered (Ci3T) models of prevention on the page below and now, respectfully offer these considerations.
For a comprehensive resource detailing current behavioral screening tools, explore this open access article:
Pelton, K. S. L., Lane, K. L., Oakes, W. P., Buckman, M. M., Royer, D. J., & Sherod, R. L. (2025). Mapping the research base for universal behavior screeners. Review of Educational Research. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543251315168
For additional information about some of the more commonly used screening tools, please see descriptions or download an at-a-glance handout below.
Our sincere thanks to our trusted partners for engaging in this important inquiry with us for more than 15 years to date.
Looking for SRSS-IE Resources?
Many Ci3T schools use the SRSS-IE to detect early signs of internalizing and externalizing behavior patterns among elementary and secondary students, and the SRSS-EC to detect similar patterns among early childhood students. Explore a full set of resources for each of these tools, including downloadable measures, installation guides, training materials, cut scores, and more.
The Student Risk Screening Scale – Internalizing and Externalizing (SRSS-IE)– is an adapted version of the SRSS (Drummond, 1994) and is available free-access. The SRSS-IE modifies the original 7-item SRSS with the inclusion of 5 new items characteristic of internalizing behaviors. The SRSS-IE includes the original seven items and the new five items with all items rated on the same 4-point Likert-type scale: never = 0, occasionally = 1, sometimes = 2, frequently = 3.
Cut scores for externalizing and internalizing behaviors are available for elementary and secondary (i.e., middle and high) schools (see table below). Please note the item peer rejection is included in the SRSS-E7 and SRSS-I6 when used at the middle and high school level. The two subscale scores are used for decision-making.
| Student Risk Screening Scale — Internalizing and Externalizing (SRSS-IE) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Elementary School | Middle and High School | |||
| SRSS-E7 | SRSS-I5 | SRSS-E7 | SRSS-I6 | |
| (1) steal; (2) lie, cheat, sneak; (3) behavior problem; (4) peer rejection; (5) low academic achievement; (6) negative attitude; (7) aggressive behavior | (8) emotionally flat; (9) shy, withdrawn; (10) sad, depressed; (11) anxious; (12) lonely | (1) steal; (2) lie, cheat, sneak; (3) behavior problem; (4) peer rejection; (5) low academic achievement; (6) negative attitude; (7) aggressive behavior | (4) peer rejection; (8) emotionally flat; (9) shy, withdrawn; (10) sad, depressed; (11) anxious; (12) lonely |
|
| 0-3 = low risk 4-8 = moderate risk 9-21 = high risk | 0-1 = low risk 2-3 = moderate risk 4-15 = high risk | 0-3 = low risk 4-8 = moderate risk 9-21 = high risk | 0-3 = low risk 4-5 = moderate risk 6-18 = high risk |
|
Visit the SRSS-IE page for downloadable measures, installation guides, and more.
The Student Risk Screening Scale - Early Childhood (SRSS-EC) is a free-access screening tool modeled after the Student Risk Screening Scale (SRSS; Drummond, 1994) and the Student Risk Screening Scale – Internalizing and Externalizing (SRSS-IE; Drummond, 1994; Lane & Menzies, 2008). The SRSS-EC has 11 items split across two subscales representing characteristics of externalizing (SRSS-EC E7) and internalizing (SRSS-EC I4) behaviors of young children. To complete the SRSS-EC, educators independently rate each student on each item using the following 4-point Likert-type scale: never = 0, occasionally = 1, sometimes = 2, frequently = 3.
Preliminary cut scores for externalizing and internalizing behaviors are now available (see table below).
We offer a downloadable research brief summarizing current findings on the SRSS-EC. We will continue to post new lessons as they are learned.
| SRSS-EC E7 (Externalizing) | SRSS-EC I4 (Internalizing) |
| • Tantrums • Active, restless • Rejected by peers • Ignores teacher and class rules • Negative attitude • Aggressive behavior • Lies | • Shy, timid • Sad, tearful • Worried, fearful • Physical complaints |
| 0-5 = low risk 6-7 = moderate risk 8-21 = high risk | 0-2 = low risk 3-4 = moderate risk 5-12 = high risk |
Visit the SRSS-EC page for downloadable measures, installation guides, and more.
The Student Risk Screening Scale (SRSS) is a free-access tool, originally developed to detect elementary students at risk of anti-social behavior patterns (Drummond, 1994). Students are individually rated on seven items using a 4-point Likert-type scale: never = 0, occasionally = 1, sometimes = 2, frequently = 3. These items are: (1) steal; (2) lie, cheat, sneak; (3) behavior problem; (4) peer rejection; (5) low academic achievement; (6) negative attitude; and (7) aggressive behavior.
Once the items are summed for each student, the student’s total score falls into one of three categories of risk: low (0-3), moderate (4-8), or high (9-21). Supports (secondary, tertiary) are considered for students based on the category of their individual score. Students in the moderate or high risk categories should be considered by educators for additional supports and interventions at the school-site. Additionally, aggregated SRSS data can be utilized to monitor the level of risk over time within grade levels, school buildings, or a district (Lane, Kalberg, Bruhn, Mahoney, & Driscoll, 2008).
Since its initial development, the SRSS has been validated for use at the elementary (e.g., Drummond, Eddy, & Reid, 1998), middle (Lane, Parks, Kalberg, & Carter, 2007) and high (Lane, Kalberg, Parks, & Carter, 2008; Lane, Oakes, Ennis, Cox, Schatschneider, & Lambert, 2013) school levels. Furthermore, this screening tool has been found to be socially valid (e.g., Lane, Bruhn, Eisner, & Kalberg, 2010) and psychometrically sound (Lane, Little, et al., 2009). Specifically, Lane, Little, et al., (2009) found the SRSS total scores improved chance estimates by 45% for detecting students with externalizing (e.g., aggressive, noncompliant) behavior patterns and 30% for detecting students with internalizing (e.g., anxious, socially withdrawn) behavior patterns. The SRSS has been used widely in studies to (a) determine the responsiveness of students within the context of multi-tiered models of prevention, (b) illustrate how a school’s risk shifts over time, and (c) to identify students in need of secondary (Tier 2) or tertiary (Tier 3) supports.
For more information, examples, and a voiced-over PowerPoint presentation by Kathleen Lane, visit Michigan's integrated behavior and learning support initiative site.
The Behavior Assessment System for Children 2nd Edition: Behavioral & Emotional and Screening System (BASC-3: BESS; Kamphaus & Reynolds, 2007) is a brief, universal screening system for measuring behavioral and emotional strengths and weaknesses in children and adolescents preK-12 in a reliable, quick, systematic way. Forms can be scored by hand or completed as part of AIMSweb assessment and data management system.
The BASC-2: BESS was designed to identify kids with behavioral or emotional patterns that impact academic achievement or social relationships. Keeping in mind that students behave differently for different people and in different settings or contexts, the BASC-3: BESS relies on multiple informants (teacher, parent, student) to obtain a comprehensive understanding of student strengths and weaknesses.
Behavioral areas assessed include (a) Internalizing problems, (b) Externalizing problems, (c) School problems, and (d) Adaptive skills. The BASC-3: BESS includes three forms that can be used individually or in combination (Spanish-language versions available for parent and student forms): (a) Teacher: Preschool and Child/Adolescent, (b) Student self-report: Child/Adolescent, and (c) Parent: Preschool and Child/Adolescent.
- For more information, please visit the BASC-3 website.
The Social, Academic, & Emotional Behavior Risk Screener (SAEBRS ; Kilgus, Chafouleas, Riley-Tillman, & von der Embse, 2013) is a brief (1-3 minutes per student) universal screening tool for behavioral and emotional risk designed for use across the K-12 grade span.
The measure consists of 19 items divided between 3 scales: social behavior (6 items), academic behavior (6 items), emotional behavior (7 items). Research suggests the SAEBRS may be used to evaluate overall general behavior, as assessed by the total of the items Total Behavior (19 items). Raters identify how frequently the student has displayed behaviors during the previous month using the following 4-point Likert-type scale: 0 = Never, 1 = Sometimes, 2 = Often, 3 = Almost Always. Prior to scoring, negatively worded items are reversed scored.
- For more information, please consider reading the SAEBRS brief, or reviewing the SAEBRS website.
The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997) is a validated and widely used free-access systematic screening tool with elementary and secondary versions for use with students ages 2 to 17 (as of June 2014; based on the performance of the SDQ with 17-year-olds being similar to that in 15- and 16-year-olds and good psychometric properties in 2-year-olds; see SDQinfo.com for more information).
Appropriate use of screening tools such as the SDQ allows schools to determine how students are progressing over time and to collect reliable data to draw accurate conclusions about how different types of students (e.g., students receiving general education, students receiving special education) are responding (Lane, Wehby, Robertson, & Rogers, 2007).
The 25-item SDQ screening tool is available in many languages and assesses a broad set of behavioral domains and comes in an early years version (ages 2-4) and a standard version for elementary (ages 4-10) or secondary (ages 11-17). One page is completed on each student, asking for about 25 positive (e.g., “Considerate of other people’s feelings”) and negative (e.g., “Fears or easily scared”) attributes rated on a 3-point Likert-type scale where 0 = not true, 1 = somewhat true, and 2 = certainly true to determine occurrence of each behavior during the last six months or the current school year. The 25 attributes divide between five scales:
- Emotional Symptoms
- Conduct Problems
- Hyperactivity / Inattention
- Peer Relationship Problems
- Prosocial Behavior and Total Difficulties (sum of first four scales)
The SDQ considers input from multiple stakeholders, seeking teacher, parent, and student perspectives to assess a given individual’s behavioral performance (Lane, Menzies, Oakes, & Kalberg, 2012).
- For more information, please consider reading the SDQ website.
The Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders 2nd Ed. (SSBD; Walker, Severson, & Feil, 2014) 2nd edition is validated for grades PK-9 and a widely used multi-gated universal screening tool designed to find students who have either internalizing or externalizing patterns of behavior. Many consider the SSBD to be the “gold standard” in screening.
This teacher completed tool has three stages: (1) nomination and rank ordering, (2) behavior scales, and (3 optional for universal screening purposes) the School Archival Records Search (SARS) and direct observations of student behavior (classroom and playground).
With the updated 2014 2nd edition, screening with the SSBD is available online or in a paper format. Screening a class of students takes less than one hour to complete.
In stage one, the classroom teacher considers all students’ behavior patterns using the descriptions of internalizing and externalizing behavior dimensions, selecting the three students with behaviors most like the each description. These six students (three for externalizing and three for internalizing) pass through Gate 1 on to stage two.
In stage two, the six students are then rated by the teacher on behavior scales: Critical Events Index and Combined Frequency Index of Adaptive and Maladaptive Behavior. Students who exceed normative criteria on these two indices pass through Gate 2 on to stage three.
In stage 3, a trained professional directly observes students in an instructional settings (academic engaged time) and on the playground (positive social behavior). The preschool scales (Early Screening Project, ESP) vary slightly in terms of behavior scales and observation setting.
- For more information, please consider reading the SSBD website.
The Social Skills Improvement System - Performance Screening Guide (SSIS-PSG) (SSiS-PSG; Elliott & Gresham, 2008) is an efficient screening tool for Preschool-Secondary. The SSiS–PSG is one tool in a family of products for screening, assessment, instruction, and intervention.
The SSiS-PSG screens four skill domains: Prosocial Behavior, Motivation to Learn, Reading Skills, and Math Skills. Educators rate each student’s skills using a 5-level descriptive criterion. Educators are able to quickly assess results corresponding to the color band for each domain – green band indicating the student is at or above expected levels of functioning for their age, yellow band indicating moderate concern, and red band indicating a high level of concern. Then educators list, on the last page of the screening tool, the students in each of the yellow and red risk band and determine appropriate interventions with the support of their school teams.
- For more information, please consider reading the SSiS website.